The nineteenth century was a time of significant global change, especially in terms of colonial expansion, the abolition of slavery, and the development of race as a central concept in social and political discourse. It was also a period when racial stereotypes became deeply embedded in Western culture, shaping perceptions of people from African, Asian, Indigenous, and other non-European backgrounds. These stereotypes, which often dehumanized and marginalized people based on race, were not only prevalent in literature but also in art, science, politics, and media. The racial stereotypes of the nineteenth century played a pivotal role in the maintenance of systems like slavery, segregation, and colonialism, and they continue to have an enduring impact on contemporary society.
The Origins of Racial Stereotypes in the Nineteenth Century
Racial stereotypes did not emerge in the nineteenth century, but they became more pronounced and institutionalized during this period. The roots of these stereotypes can be traced back to the colonial and slavery systems that had been in place for centuries. European colonial powers such as Britain, Spain, France, and Portugal had expanded their empires into Africa, the Americas, and Asia, where they encountered a wide variety of different cultures and peoples. The treatment of these non-European populations was often justified by racialized ideologies that cast them as inferior, uncivilized, or “primitive.”
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the rise of scientific racism sought to provide a pseudoscientific basis for these prejudices. Figures such as Carl Linnaeus, Georges Cuvier, and Samuel George Morton contributed to the development of race as a biological and intellectual concept. Morton, for example, measured the size of human skulls, claiming that people of European descent had the largest brains, suggesting that they were intellectually superior to other races. These ideas permeated both academic thought and popular culture, solidifying the notion that racial differences were natural, biological, and hierarchical. Such thinking fed into colonialist rhetoric and justified the domination of non-European people.
Key Racial Stereotypes in the Nineteenth Century
The nineteenth century saw the proliferation of several key racial stereotypes, many of which became deeply ingrained in Western society. These stereotypes were portrayed through literature, art, and popular media, and their widespread dissemination contributed to the marginalization and dehumanization of non-European peoples.
The “Noble Savage” and the “Savage” Stereotype
One of the most enduring and paradoxical stereotypes in the nineteenth century was that of the “noble savage.” Popularized by philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the noble savage was an Indigenous person who was portrayed as pure, virtuous, and untainted by the corruption of civilization. This stereotype was often used to contrast the “purity” of Indigenous cultures with the supposed moral decay of European societies. While it may seem positive, the “noble savage” stereotype was paternalistic and condescending, positioning Indigenous people as childlike, innocent, and in need of European guidance.
At the opposite end of the spectrum was the “savage” stereotype, which depicted non-European people—particularly Africans, Indigenous Americans, and Asians—as brutal, violent, and primitive. This stereotype reinforced the notion that these people were incapable of achieving the cultural, intellectual, and moral heights of European societies. It justified the violent conquest of their lands and resources by portraying them as a “threat” to civilization.
In literature, this stereotype was embodied in characters like Moby-Dick’s Queequeg, who, while loyal and honorable, was depicted as a “savage” from a foreign land whose culture and customs were foreign and inferior to the norms of Western civilization. Similarly, the portrayal of Indigenous peoples in novels such as James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans (1826) emphasized their barbarity and otherness, despite their noble qualities.
The “Lazy” and “Subservient” Black Stereotype
In the context of African Americans and the institution of slavery, racial stereotypes were used to rationalize and perpetuate the practice of slavery in the United States and other parts of the world. African slaves were often depicted as lazy, happy, and subservient, with the idea that they were “naturally” suited to hard labor in the fields but incapable of intellectual or emotional depth. This stereotype was embodied by figures such as Uncle Tom in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852). While Uncle Tom is portrayed as a virtuous and self-sacrificing figure, his meek and submissive nature reinforced the idea that African Americans were destined to serve white people and lacked the agency to control their own lives.
The “happy slave” stereotype, which suggested that slaves were content in their bondage, was used by pro-slavery advocates to defend the practice. It portrayed African Americans as inherently suited to enslavement because of their perceived lack of ambition or intellect. This stereotype was deeply ingrained in Southern culture, where African Americans were often forced to perform menial tasks and were denied access to education or opportunities for personal growth.
The Hypersexualized Black Female Stereotype
Another harmful stereotype that emerged during the nineteenth century was the portrayal of black women as hypersexualized, a stereotype that persisted throughout the history of slavery and beyond. The figure of the “Jezebel” was often used to justify the sexual exploitation of African women, portraying them as promiscuous and insatiable. This stereotype was used to justify the sexual abuse of enslaved women, as their sexual autonomy was deemed unimportant or non-existent. It also had a long-lasting impact on the way African-American women were viewed in society, perpetuating the idea that they were both sexually available and morally inferior.
This stereotype is perhaps most clearly reflected in the visual and literary representations of African-American women in antebellum literature and art. Works like Frances Harper’s Iola Leroy (1892) and popular minstrel shows helped solidify these degrading views of black womanhood, reducing African-American women to little more than objects of sexual desire.
The “Yellow Peril” and the Asian Stereotype
In the late nineteenth century, a new wave of racial stereotyping emerged with the influx of Asian immigrants, particularly Chinese and Japanese workers, to the United States and other Western nations. The so-called “yellow peril” was a racial stereotype that portrayed Asians as a threat to Western civilization. This stereotype, which became widespread during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, depicted Asians as disease-ridden, foreign invaders who posed a danger to both the physical and moral fabric of Western society.
The “yellow peril” stereotype was fueled by the fear of the growing number of Chinese and Japanese immigrants who were perceived as taking jobs from white workers. These immigrants were often depicted in the press and in political cartoons as depraved, untrustworthy, and incapable of integrating into Western society. This stereotype contributed to the implementation of exclusionary immigration laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in the United States, which specifically targeted Chinese immigrants.
In addition, the depiction of Asian characters in literature often followed the same tropes. Asian characters were frequently portrayed as either exotic, untrustworthy, or criminal. Works like Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth (1905) and Jack London’s The Unparalleled Invasion (1907) both reflected these views, casting Asians as both a racial and social threat.
Indigenous Stereotypes
The nineteenth century was also a period in which Indigenous peoples in North America, Australia, and other colonized regions were systematically marginalized and stripped of their lands. In literature and popular culture, Indigenous peoples were often depicted through a lens of savagery or, alternatively, as noble but doomed figures. These stereotypes reflected the European colonial desire to justify the conquest and subjugation of Indigenous peoples.
In the United States, the figure of the “noble savage” was often romanticized, but this portrayal was overshadowed by the more prevalent stereotype of the “violent” or “bloodthirsty” Indigenous warrior. Works such as James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans and the portrayal of Native Americans in the “Wild West” shows and films, such as those of Buffalo Bill Cody, emphasized their supposed savage nature and their inevitable extinction in the face of European expansion.
The Impact of Racial Stereotypes on Society
The racial stereotypes of the nineteenth century had significant and lasting effects on the societies in which they were produced. These stereotypes were used to justify the continued subjugation and marginalization of non-white people, from the enslavement of Africans to the displacement of Indigenous peoples and the exploitation of Asian immigrants. They also contributed to the development of racist policies, including segregation, discriminatory immigration laws, and the criminalization of racial minorities.
Racial stereotypes also shaped the cultural imagination, reinforcing the idea that white Europeans were superior to other races. This helped to create and maintain racial hierarchies that permeated all levels of society, from education and employment to legal systems and political institutions. The legacy of these stereotypes is still felt today, as many of the racial prejudices and discriminatory practices that emerged in the nineteenth century continue to influence contemporary racial dynamics.
Conclusion
Racial stereotypes in the nineteenth century played a central role in shaping attitudes toward race and ethnicity, particularly in the context of slavery, colonialism, and immigration. They were used to justify racial hierarchies and systemic inequality, dehumanizing and marginalizing entire populations. These stereotypes continue to have a profound impact on contemporary society, influencing everything from the media to politics. Understanding the origins and consequences of these stereotypes is crucial to confronting and dismantling the legacy of racism that still persists today.